DNA fragments of 1–5 kb were recovered from an agarose gel and ligated into pUC118 BamH I/BAP (Takara). For amoxicillin-resistant fosmid clones, Peptide 17 cost the kanamycin-resistance vector pHSG298 (Takara) cut with BamH I (Takara) and treated with alkaline phosphatase (Takara) was used instead of pUC118, which cannot be used for amoxicillin-resistant screening because of bearing the ampicillin resistance marker ampr. Ligation products were transformed into E. coli DH5α (Invitrogen) and spread onto LB agar plates containing either 100 μg mL−1 ampicillin

for pUC118 or 50 μg mL−1 kanamycin for pHSG298 and another antibiotic as substrate: 8 μg mL−1 amoxicillin, 32 μg mL−1 kanamycin, 4 μg mL−1 tetracycline or Obeticholic Acid supplier 128 μg mL−1 d-cycloserine. After 24 h at 37 °C, a single resistant subclone from each plate was selected. Positive subclones were sequenced from two directions using M13 primers. Primers were designed from each read to close the insert sequence. Sequences were assembled with seqman software (DNAStar). Putative open reading frames (ORFs) were identified with ORF Finder (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/gorf/). All predicted ARGs were compared to exclude redundant ARGs (> 99% identity at nucleotide level), and the unique ARGs were analyzed as described previously (Sommer et al., 2009). Phylogenetic analysis was conducted with the neighbor-joining method using mega5 (Tamura et al., 2011).

Bootstrapping (1000 replicates) was used to estimate the reliability of phylogenetic reconstructions (Felsenstein,

1985). The kanamycin-resistance fused gene was amplified using the following primers: EcoRI-KM2-F, 5′-CCGGAATTCATGGAAAACAGGGCTGTG-3′ and XhoI-KM2-R, 5′-CGCTCGAGTTATTCTTCCT CCCCCGG-3′. The N-terminal domain of KM2 was amplified using primers EcoRI-KM2-F and XhoI-KM2-N-R, 5′-CCGCTCGAGTTACTTTCCTCCTAGTTTTTC-3′. The C-terminal domain of KM2 was amplified using primer XhoI-KM2-R with EcoRI-KM2-C-F, 5′-CCGGAATTCATGAATGACGTTAAGGCA-3′. see more The original fosmid DNA was used as the PCR template and products were cut with EcoRI and XhoI (Takara) and ligated into the expression vector pGEX-5X-3 (GE Healthcare) digested with EcoRI and XhoI and transferred into E. coli DH5α. The integrity of the cloned sequences in recombinant plasmids was confirmed by sequencing. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MICs) of kanamycin to the cloned whole length protein KM2 and its N-terminal and C-terminal domains were determined by broth microdilution according to Clinical & Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) (2010) guidelines. Escherichia coli DH5α carrying the vector pGEX-5X-3 was selected as negative control and E. coli ATCC 25922 was used as quality control strain. Sequence data from this work were deposited in GenBank with the following accession numbers: JN086157–JN086173. One metagenomic library from four human fecal samples was created, containing c. 415 000 clones. The average insert size was c. 30 kb for about 12.