In Experiment 1, there was no difference in how rapidly this extinction of alcohol seeking occurred as a function of test context. However, CS+ responding was elevated in the alcohol context, compared to the nonalcohol context throughout the test session. This finding suggests that conducting extinction in a context where the unconditioned stimulus, in this case alcohol, was previously experienced produces Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a resistance to extinction (see also Bouton et al. 2011). This is an important observation given that

human addicts may undergo exposure therapy in which drug-predictive discrete cues are repeatedly presented this website without the drug in an effort to dampen cue reactivity (Drummond and Glautier 1994; Conklin and Tiffany Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 2002). The rate of extinction during these sessions might be influenced by the setting in which they are conducted, which in turn could impact the longevity of the extinction memory. Like the present

data, studies using instrumental alcohol self-administration procedures also reveal that context can modulate responding to discrete drug cues. In these procedures, subjects are trained to perform an operant response to obtain alcohol, and alcohol delivery is generally paired with a discrete tone-light cue. Following acquisition, responding is extinguished by withholding alcohol. Interestingly, if training Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and extinction are conducted in distinct contexts then placement into the training context following extinction renews responding. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical This effect is invigorated

by contingent presentations of the discrete tone-light cue at test, compared to tests in which the cue is absent (Tsiang and Janak 2006). Furthermore, when rats are trained to lever-press for alcohol in Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical one context and then extinction is conducted in a second context, exposure to a drop of alcohol triggers reinstatement in the alcohol context but not in the extinction context (Chaudhri et al. 2008a). Congruent with the present data, these results suggest that both instrumental alcohol seeking and Pavlovian-conditioned alcohol-seeking responses the can be strongly invigorated by alcohol-associated contexts. Experiment 3 tested the hypothesis that the facilitation of cue-driven alcohol seeking in the alcohol context is attributable to a summation of the conditioned excitatory properties of the CS+ and the alcohol-associated context. This hypothesis was derived from data showing that drug contexts stimulate craving in humans, suggesting that contexts acquire conditioned excitatory properties (Conklin et al. 2008), and by a preclinical study in rats showing that relative to a neutral context, a context associated with the euphoric effect of morphine facilitated sexual behavior triggered by the presence of a female rat (Mitchell and Stewart 1990).