This is the first report that shows the inhibition of viral replication in the cells and the involvement of IFN-α/β in the antiviral effect of lactoferrin. It has already

been reported that oral administration of lactoferrin induces IFN-α/β in the small intestine of mice [24] and [29]. From these findings, IFN-α/β may be a key mediator in the antiviral effects of orally administered lactoferrin and the deduced antiviral mechanism of lactoferrin was illustrated in Fig. 1. The effects of the oral administration of lactoferrin against viral gastroenteritis, BGJ398 chemical structure where rotavirus or norovirus was identified as a pathogen, have been reported (Table 2). In a study of rotaviral gastroenteritis in children, daily intake of bovine lactoferrin-containing products ameliorated the severity of the disease, although there was no significant benefit in reducing infection incidence [30]. The addition of recombinant human lactoferrin and lysozyme to a rice-based oral rehydration PF-562271 solubility dmso solution had beneficial effects on children with acute diarrhea in whom rotavirus was identified as a pathogen in 18–19% of stool samples [31]. The daily administration of lactoferrin tablets

to children reduced the incidence of noroviral gastroenteritis [32]. Lactoferrin administration exhibited no decrease in diarrhea incidence, but decreased longitudinal prevalence and severity in children, where norovirus was isolated as a pathogen in 35% of diarrheal samples [33]. Recently, we performed a survey on norovirus-like gastroenteritis incidence in subjects consuming 100 mg lactoferrin-containing products including yogurt, yogurt drinks, and milk-type drinks tuclazepam [34]. The results indicated a lower incidence of norovirus-like gastroenteritis in groups who frequently consumed lactoferrin products compared with groups who consumed them at a lower frequency (Fig. 2). Because there is no prophylactic

or therapeutic treatment for noroviral gastroenteritis, lactoferrin is a promising candidate to prevent infection and further studies are warranted to establish more reliable evidence. Summer colds, also called summer minor illnesses, are caused by adenoviruses and a family of viruses called enteroviruses. These have a preference for warmer weather. Adenovirus mainly causes upper and lower respiratory tract infections, but also causes diseases of the intestine, eyes, liver, urinary tract and lymphoid tissue. Adenovirus is known to cause pharyngoconjunctival fever, also called pool fever. Runny nose, nasal congestion and postnasal drainage are complaints associated with both summer and winter colds. However, enteroviruses may cause more complicated illnesses, which include fever, sore throat, hacking cough, diarrhea, and skin rash. Enteroviruses, enterovirus 71 and coxsackievirus A16, are known as common causative viral agents for hand, foot, and mouth diseases in humans.