The

scarcity of evidence in historical records has already been pointed out. Are modern publications based on stronger substantiation? Lack of solid proof did not stop an eminent German zoologist, the late Bernhard Grzimek, former director of the Frankfurt Zoo and prolific author/filmmaker, to include a paragraph about the candiru and its habits in Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopaedia,[32] possibly the most authoritative reference work in zoology. The current edition[33] expands on RXDX-106 mouse this topic including an artist’s impression of a cross-sected invaded penis. Evidence originates from rigorous research. However, experiments have so far been unsatisfactory,[18] PD98059 not least because of the difficulty in reproducing the natural setting and perhaps a lack of willing volunteers. Also, the fragile fish

do not tolerate well being handled. For this reason, there is a tendency to cling to the one much publicized case from Brazil,[34, 35] where in 1997 an extraction of a candiru is said to have been performed. Unfortunately, there are too many inconsistencies and irregularities attached to this case[18] to rely on it with confidence, such as the victim’s insistence that the fish jumped out of the water and ascended the urine column. Very few images are publicly available of V cirrhosa, the same drawings and photos being used over and over again, from crude web sites to academic papers. With so little to show for, how does the candiru fare in the medical literature? Despite the lack of evidence, background literature of articles in various disciplines include the candiru’s alleged habits uncritically, eg, papers in medical psychology[36] or sex

research[37] on the ritual subincision of the urethra. Urological papers[38, 39] also rely on unverified reports. No further current medical reference could be located through scientific databases. The Centers for Disease Control lists “candiru infection or infestation” in its “Alphabetical Index to Diseases and Nature Rapamycin mouse of Injury”[40] as B88.8, but no cases have been reported (personal communication, June 2012). A random selection of travel medicine-related books and specific textbooks revealed no sign of the fish, its behavior, or corresponding advice on preventative behavior or treatment options. Elsewhere, despite lacking evidence, unsubstantiated “facts” are repeated as well as uncritical advice dispensed with authority. An earlier paper is reasonably critical of the historical literature but proceeds to give firm advice on prevention and treatment to travelers.[17] Entries in a wilderness medicine textbook repeat those suggestions.

Banding pattern similarity was evaluated by construction of dendrograms using the NTSYSpc software, version 2.11 (Applied Biostatics Inc., NY), employing the Jaccard similarity coefficient. A dendrogram was deduced from a similarity matrix using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic average (UPGMA) clustering algorithm. The faithfulness of the cluster analysis was estimated by calculating the cophenetic correlation value for each dendrogram. To contribute to the characterization of the natural variability of the species

L. garvieae, we evaluated the genetic diversity of a collection of strains isolated from different sources. L. garvieae is mainly known for its presence in aquatic environments and as component of milk and many artisanal cheeses. In this work, we studied new isolates from other sources to give learn more a comprehensive indication of the diversity found within the species. We focused our attention on food matrices not yet or poorly

investigated for the presence of L. garvieae, particularly, meat, vegetables, and cereals. Of 40 food samples tested, 20 (50%) were found to contain L. garvieae (Table 1). Raw meat and meat products showed the highest prevalence of contamination with L. garvieae: All samples analyzed www.selleckchem.com/products/PLX-4032.html were positive for the presence of this bacterial species. A high rate of L. garvieae was also found in vegetables (31%), while only one cereals sample showed the presence of this species. From these sources, we selected 24 new ecotypes that were studied in comparison with previously isolated dairy and fish ecotypes (Table 1). All new isolates were properly Succinyl-CoA identified by specific PCR, giving the expected amplification product of 1100 bp belonging

to the 16S rRNA gene (Zlotkin et al., 1998). First of all, the strains were screened for the presence of the lac operon. In previous studies (Fortina et al., 2007, 2009) carried out on dairy and fish isolates, we observed that only the isolates of dairy origin were able to utilize lactose, because they harbored a lac operon, which shares a high sequence homology to that found in Lactococcus lactis. As a conclusion, we hypothesized a gene gain by lateral gene transfer, which provided dairy L. garvieae strains of a key physiological property contributing to adaptation to milk/dairy niche. When lacG was tested on new isolates, we found that the ability to metabolize lactose was not exclusively related to dairy isolates, but was heterogeneously scattered among L. garvieae meat isolates. Indeed, three meat isolates (strains Smp2, Smp3, and Smp4) were positive for the presence of the lacG gene. The remaining strains from meat and the isolates from vegetables and cereals did not show any amplification signal. These results indicate that lac operon cannot be considered a suitable genetic marker for associating strains to their niche of isolation.

The protein products of spoIIE, kinA and spoVT have already been identified to play a role in the sporulation process of B. subtilis: SpoIIE governs the phosphorylation state of a protein regulating transcription factor sigma F during sporulation (Arigoni et al., 1996); KinA is the primary kinase for initiation of sporulation (Perego et al., 1989); and SpoVT regulates forespore-specific sigma factor G-dependent genes and plays a key role in the final

stages of spore formation (Bagyan et al., 1996). In addition, we have now identified degU, ykwC, yabP and speA as genes which are likely to play a role in the sporulation process. Although the locations Selleck RAD001 of transposon insertion sites were upstream of yabP and speA in MQ43 and MC78, it may be that they disrupted the structure of their promoters and thus affected transcription of these genes, resulting in the sporulation-defective phenotypes observed. Ultrastructural studies and protein analysis of mutants confirmed that the synthesis of Bin proteins is dependent on the initiation of sporulation. The crystal proteins become visible in sporulating cells immediately following septum formation at about stage

III of sporulation in B. sphaericus (Yousten & Davidson, 1982). Mutants which are blocked early in the sporulation process show deficiencies in crystal proteins synthesis (Charles click here et al., 1988). Similarly, mutant MC06, which blocked early, failed to produce crystal proteins and had an extremely low larvicidal activity. However, small quantities of Bin proteins in MD20, MB41 and MN49 could be

detected by immunoblotting, suggesting that the binAB operon could be transcribed at low levels by RNA polymerase present during the vegetative stage or early stages of sporulation. LacZ fusion assays have shown that transcription of the crystal proteins gene fusion begin immediately before the end of exponential growth (Ahmed et al., 1995). In agreement with this, mutant MD20, which is blocked in sporulation following formation of an asymmetric septum, exhibited greater mosquitocidal activity PtdIns(3,4)P2 than did MC06, MB41 and MN49. Furthermore, mutants MQ43, MP64 and MC78, which are blocked much later in the sporulation process, retained the ability to produce crystal proteins and were as toxic to mosquito larvae as the wild-type strain. The transposon insertion mutant library and the methods for screening sporulation-defective mutants reported here could be used to determine more candidate genes involved in sporulation in B. sphaericus. Further studies are required to better elucidate the role of the identified genes involving sporulation and Bin proteins synthesis. We are grateful to Dr Simon Rayner for critical reading of the manuscript, and Mr Quanxin Cai for his technical assistance and rearing the mosquito larvae.

5 U of Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen, Netherland). Specific PCR primer pair SRDrecF (5′-TCTCGAAAATGGGGCGCAGC-3′) and SRDrecR (5′-TTTGAG-AMACTCATAAGTGCGCATTC-3′) was used to generate the region of rep gene and surrounding sequences. Initial denaturation

step (95 °C 5 min) was followed by 35 cycles (94 °C 1 min, 58 °C 1 min, 72 °C 1 min) and a final incubation at 72 °C for 10 min. Inverse PCR primers (Sru77INV F 5′-AAGACCCTAAGCCTGAAAACG-3′ and Sru77INV R 5′-ATTAAAGTCTGTGTATCGGCTCTG-3′) were used to amplify the rest of the potential plasmid from CHIR-99021 chemical structure strain S. ruminantium 77, and the reaction was carried out under the following conditions: initial denaturation at 95 °C for 3 min, 35 cycles consisting of denaturation at 95 °C for 2.5 min, annealing at 55 °C for 2.5 min and extension at 72 °C for 2.5 min, finished with incubation at 72 °C for 10 min. Selected PCR amplicons were ligated into plasmid pTZ57R/T (Fermentas, Lithuania), Romidepsin research buy and Escherichia coli ER2267 competent cells were transformed with the ligation mixture. Recombinant plasmids were isolated with GeneJET Plasmid Miniprep kit (Fermentas), and the inserted DNA fragments were sequenced. Using the blast algorithm (Altschul et al., 1990) at National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), DNA sequences were subjected to homology search against protein and nucleic acid database. Nucleotide sequences have been deposited

to the GenBank database under accession nos. JF807312 (pSRD77 plasmid complete sequence), JF807313 (putative pSRD18 plasmid rep cassette), JF807314 (putative pSRD5 plasmid rep cassette) and JF807315 (putative pSRD28 plasmid rep cassette). Pairwise nucleotide sequence comparison of pSRD191 and pSRD192 plasmids revealed localized sequence homology shared by these two plasmids limited to regions surrounding

the gene for replication protein (Fig. 1). The SRSR elements were found downstream and another conserved sequence upstream of the rep gene on both of the plasmids. Similar genetic organization was observed on other S. ruminantium cryptic plasmids (data not shown) implying that the replication 6-phosphogluconolactonase protein with the encompassing conserved sequences can represent a complete gene cassette. Based on sequence homology existing between pSRD191 and pSRD192, specific PCR primers (designated SRDrec) were designed amplifying two specific DNA fragments belonging to the given type of plasmid, pSRD191 or pSRD192. With PCR amplification and subsequent sequence analysis of obtained amplicons, we tested 13 S. ruminantium local strains originating from various ruminants. PCR products with predicted size were obtained in a number of tested strains (Fig. 2.). In total, five PCR amplicons representing possible rep gene cassettes were selected (indicated by arrows in Fig. 2), cloned, sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis.

5 U of Taq DNA polymerase (Invitrogen, Netherland). Specific PCR primer pair SRDrecF (5′-TCTCGAAAATGGGGCGCAGC-3′) and SRDrecR (5′-TTTGAG-AMACTCATAAGTGCGCATTC-3′) was used to generate the region of rep gene and surrounding sequences. Initial denaturation

step (95 °C 5 min) was followed by 35 cycles (94 °C 1 min, 58 °C 1 min, 72 °C 1 min) and a final incubation at 72 °C for 10 min. Inverse PCR primers (Sru77INV F 5′-AAGACCCTAAGCCTGAAAACG-3′ and Sru77INV R 5′-ATTAAAGTCTGTGTATCGGCTCTG-3′) were used to amplify the rest of the potential plasmid from learn more strain S. ruminantium 77, and the reaction was carried out under the following conditions: initial denaturation at 95 °C for 3 min, 35 cycles consisting of denaturation at 95 °C for 2.5 min, annealing at 55 °C for 2.5 min and extension at 72 °C for 2.5 min, finished with incubation at 72 °C for 10 min. Selected PCR amplicons were ligated into plasmid pTZ57R/T (Fermentas, Lithuania), CH5424802 cost and Escherichia coli ER2267 competent cells were transformed with the ligation mixture. Recombinant plasmids were isolated with GeneJET Plasmid Miniprep kit (Fermentas), and the inserted DNA fragments were sequenced. Using the blast algorithm (Altschul et al., 1990) at National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), DNA sequences were subjected to homology search against protein and nucleic acid database. Nucleotide sequences have been deposited

to the GenBank database under accession nos. JF807312 (pSRD77 plasmid complete sequence), JF807313 (putative pSRD18 plasmid rep cassette), JF807314 (putative pSRD5 plasmid rep cassette) and JF807315 (putative pSRD28 plasmid rep cassette). Pairwise nucleotide sequence comparison of pSRD191 and pSRD192 plasmids revealed localized sequence homology shared by these two plasmids limited to regions surrounding

the gene for replication protein (Fig. 1). The SRSR elements were found downstream and another conserved sequence upstream of the rep gene on both of the plasmids. Similar genetic organization was observed on other S. ruminantium cryptic plasmids (data not shown) implying that the replication Calpain protein with the encompassing conserved sequences can represent a complete gene cassette. Based on sequence homology existing between pSRD191 and pSRD192, specific PCR primers (designated SRDrec) were designed amplifying two specific DNA fragments belonging to the given type of plasmid, pSRD191 or pSRD192. With PCR amplification and subsequent sequence analysis of obtained amplicons, we tested 13 S. ruminantium local strains originating from various ruminants. PCR products with predicted size were obtained in a number of tested strains (Fig. 2.). In total, five PCR amplicons representing possible rep gene cassettes were selected (indicated by arrows in Fig. 2), cloned, sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis.

Younger MSM were more likely to have had a negative HIV test within the previous 2 years and less likely to have never been tested (P < 0.001). While testing in the previous 2 years was similar among European and Māori MSM, it was less common among Pacific MSM, although there were few in this group; and both Māori and Pacific MSM were more likely to have never been tested. Overall the pattern of past testing was not statistically significantly different by ethnicity (P = 0.57). Among those heterosexually infected, there was also no significant trend in presenting

late over the period of study (P for trend = 0.44 for ‘late presentation’ and 0.35 for ‘advanced HIV disease’). Presenting with ‘advanced HIV disease’ was significantly less common among the women than among the men, but this difference was removed after adjusting for age (RR = 0.8; 95% CI

0.6–1.2). No difference was seen between GSK1120212 mw men and women in the risk of ‘late presentation’ (Table 5). As with MSM, those presenting when aged 40 years or older were more likely to be late, the difference being more extreme for ‘advanced HIV disease’. In the age- and sex-adjusted analysis there were no significant ethnic differences in people with ‘advanced HIV disease’. Ceritinib in vivo The adjusted RR for ‘late presentation’ was significantly elevated for those of Pacific ethnicity (1.8; 95% CI 1.1–2.9) and those of ‘other’ ethnicity (1.4; 95% CI 1.0–1.9) compared with those of European ethnicity. Those infected overseas were more likely to have ‘advanced

HIV disease’ at diagnosis or ‘late presentation’, as were heterosexuals tested because of ‘symptoms’. Those who had never had a prior negative test were more likely to have ‘advanced HIV disease’ or ‘late presentation’. Prior testing was rare, however, with around three-quarters of both men and women never previously being tested, and only 10% of both genders having been tested in the previous 2 years. The main findings are Farnesyltransferase that in recent years, among those opting to have an HIV test in New Zealand, half of those diagnosed with HIV infection were ‘late presenters’, having an initial CD4 cell count below the level at which treatment is currently recommended, and just under one-third had ‘advanced HIV disease’. Overall, MSM were less likely to present late, and the proportion doing so decreased with decreasing age. In age-adjusted analyses, Māori and Pacific MSM were more likely than those of European ethnicity to have ‘advanced HIV disease’. Unsurprisingly, those who had had a negative HIV test in the previous 2 years were less likely to present late, as were those tested for reasons other than symptoms. Strengths of this study were that information on the means of infection and demographic characteristics were available for the vast majority of people diagnosed in New Zealand, and the same code for HIV reporting and AIDS notification allowed linkage of the timing of the diagnosis of HIV infection and AIDS.

alginolyticus obtained from oysters carrying a hemolysin gene similar to the trh2 gene of V. parahaemolyticus. However, this is the first report of a trh-like gene in a non-Vibrio spp. Analysis of the complete trh gene revealed an ORF of 570 nucleotides encoding a deduced protein of 189 amino acids (Fig. 1). The ORF also possessed the signal peptide sequence with a peptidase cleavage site at positions 24–25 from the start codon ATG (Met). A sequence that can be transcribed to a putative ribosome-binding site on the mRNA was localized

between 4 and 10-bp upstream of the start codon. The trh genes (trh1 and trh2) of V. parahaemolyticus are encoded by 189 amino acids and share a sequence homology of 84% (Kishishita et al., 1992). Sequence analysis this website of the A. veronii trh-like sequence showed it to differ Selumetinib nmr from the V. parahaemolyticus trh1 and trh2 protein sequence by three and 27 amino acids (Fig. 3a) and having a sequence identity of 99% and 84%, respectively. Further, in the phylogenetic analysis, the trh gene sequences of A. veronii clustered with the trh1 gene sequence rather than the trh2 gene sequences (Fig. 3b). Several studies have correlated the presence of the trh gene in V. parahaemolyticus to its urease phenotype (Suthienkul et al., 1995; Iida et al., 1998; Park et al., 2000; Parvathi et al., 2006), wherein the upstream region of the trh gene is flanked by a transposase and the downstream region

is flanked by a ureR gene. In this study, all the three isolates were negative by PCR for the ureR gene and also negative by PCR using TTU2 and TTU3 primers amplifying the region between transposase and ureR in V. parahaemolyticus, suggesting the absence of the ure gene and transposase in the

three A. veronii isolates. Expression studies of the trh-like genes of A. veronii by RT-PCR and Western blotting yielded a negative result for all the three isolates (Fig. 4), suggesting that the gene is either not expressing itself or, if it is expressing itself, it is doing so at a very low level. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the presence PRKACG of a trh-like gene in non-Vibrio spp. However, because this gene did not express itself, the exact role of this gene in the virulence of A. veronii strains is not clear. The role of other factors influencing the expression needs to be addressed. Our study also points to the fact that the molecular diagnostic test based on the detection of trh genes (Bej et al., 1999; Parvathi et al., 2006) may now have to be readdressed as non-Vibrio pathogens also harbor these genes, and merely looking for the presence of these genes does not always imply that V. parahaemolyticus is present. Thanks are due to Dr T. Ramamurthy, NICED, Kolkata, India, for kindly providing clinical isolates of Aeromonas spp. The financial support by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, towards program support in Aquaculture and Marine Biotechnology is gratefully acknowledged.

05). Increased total hypoglycaemia was associated with increased duration of nasogastric feeding (p=0.016). Hypoglycaemia was prevalent before the next medication dose www.selleckchem.com/products/FK-506-(Tacrolimus).html and rare between medication administration and feed bolus: 34.8% and 4.3% of hypoglycaemic patients respectively. It was not possible to assess the impact of withheld feeds from available documentation. Frequencies of hypoglycaemia, severe hypoglycaemia and extended hypoglycaemia are shown in Table

3. Sulphonylurea treatment (SU) was associated with increased incidence of hypoglycaemia (p<0.001) and extended hypoglycaemia (p=0.038). All hypoglycaemic patients had increased BGM post-hypoglycaemia (6.1±1.6/day) and based on this 78% had medication decreased

in response to hypoglycaemia. Survival analysis showed a significantly longer time to a subsequent hypoglycaemic episode between patients whose treatment was reduced in response to hypoglycaemia and those whose treatment remained unchanged (p=0.008) (see Figure 1). There was no association with subsequent hyperglycaemia (p=0.33). Hypoglycaemic episodes were not uncommon in these patients. Comparison with other nasogastric studies is difficult due to lack of quantification of hypoglycaemic events.15 Rates of hypoglycaemia in this study (PPD 10.9%; PTG 3.5%) were higher than the two comparable studies (PPD – not reported8 and 1.1–1.3%9; PTG – 1.4–5.48 and 1.1–1.39), especially as both defined hypoglycaemia as <3.9mmol/L; the higher cut-off point would be expected to identify more hypoglycaemic episodes.16 Frequency of BGM GW-572016 ic50 also varied from 6.1±1.6/day (this study) compared to 4/day,8 and 4/day+ (maximum 6/day).9 However,

it has been shown that increased BGM can increase documented inpatient hypoglycaemia and severe hypoglycaemia.17 Additionally, one study9 included subjects on dual oral and enteral feeding which may tend to decrease frequency of hypoglycaemia.6,18 Severe and extended hypoglycaemia are not quantified in the literature on nasogastric feeding but the high frequency of BGM in our study may have increased documentation of these.17 Hypoglycaemia and extended hypoglycaemia were statistically associated with SU, consistent with other reports mafosfamide documenting increased frequency of hypoglycaemia in SU treated individuals, especially those >65 years of age.19,20 As this was a retrospective observational study, duration of nasogastric feeding varied. We therefore used Kaplan-Meier survival curves for time to event analysis of the effect of reduction in medication post-hypoglycaemia on a subsequent hypoglycaemic episode. This meant that censored data which arose from cessation of nasogastric feeding before a subsequent hypoglycaemic event was observed, were taken into account. As a consequence, we have shown a significantly increased time to a subsequent hypoglycaemic event in those whose medication was reduced.

The tree peony is an important ornamental plant indigenous to China, belonging to the section Moutan check details in the genus Paeonia, Paeoniaceae. In China, the tree peony has been cultivated since the Dongjin Dynasty 1600 years ago and it was introduced to Japan early in 724–749 and brought to Europe in 1787 (Li, 1999). The root bark of the tree peony, known as Dan Pi, is an important ingredient in Chinese traditional medicine (Pan & Dai, 2009; Li et al., 2010). All wild species are widely dispersed in China, and more than 1500 cultivars have been planted (Han et al., 2008).

In spite of this diversity, many cultivars with good ornamental traits do not grow well in some areas because of the poor soil and climate conditions. For example, some Zhongyuan and Xibei cultivars such as Lan Furong do not grow well south of the Yangtze River in China. A good way to screen for and apply PGPB strains to tree peony cultivation might be based on the characteristics of PGPB strains. We therefore investigated the application of the PGPB strains of the plant-associated bacterial community. In this study, bacteria click here were isolated from the bulk soil, rhizosphere, and rhizoplane in the root of tree peony plants collected from Luoyang, China. The diversity of culturable bacteria was investigated by amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) and 16S rRNA gene

sequence analysis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of PAB diversity of tree peony plants.

Soil samples were obtained from Luoyang National Peony Garden (Luoyang, Henan Province, China), where different varieties were cultured in different sections. Sampling was conducted according GABA Receptor to the methods described by Han et al. (2009) with some modifications. In November 2009, rhizosphere and rhizoplane soil samples from the root domain of tree peony (Paeonia ostii) of two varieties (Fengdan and Lan Furong), each of three plants, representing about 10-year growth, were collected randomly at a depth of 5–15 cm from the stem base, with each plant at least 50 m from each other. Bulk soil samples were collected according to the previous methods at the same time. Samples were analyzed for recovery of isolates 8–10 h after collection. Rhizosphere, rhizoplane, and soil bacteria were isolated according to the previous procedures (Courchesne & Gobran, 1997; Han et al., 2005) with Luria–Bertani (LB, 1 × , and 0.1 ×), trypticase soy agar (TSA), yeast–glucose (YG), R2A, and King’s B (KB) plates. In all cultivation experiments, the agar plates were incubated in the dark for 3–5 days at 28 °C. Based on the colony characteristics, single colonies with different morphological characteristics were selected and stored in 15% glycerol at −80 °C for further study. The DNA of bacterial isolates was prepared according to the procedures of Park et al. (2005). The 16S rRNA genes were amplified from genomic DNA by PCR using the primers 27F and 1378R (Weber et al., 2001).

The assay was then optimized and applied to in sacco and in vivo rumen samples. The sizes of the S. ruminantium, F. succinogenes, and total bacterial populations that were associated with orchardgrass hay stem in the rumen and in the whole rumen content of sheep are shown in Fig. 2. The in sacco

abundance of S. ruminantium clearly depended on the bacterial clade, with clade I showing the higher abundance than clade II. Also, the abundance of clade I was approximately 10 times higher than that of F. succinogenes. The in vivo abundance of the different clades showed a similar http://www.selleckchem.com/products/VX-770.html tendency to that observed in sacco, with clade I showing the higher abundance than clade II. No difference in abundance over time was observed between clade I and F. succinogenes. Selenomonas ruminantium, a functionally diverse bacterial species,

is one of the most abundant species in the rumen (Dryden et al., 1962; John et al., 1974; Evans & Martin, 1997). Although this species is noncellulolytic (Kingsley & Hoeniger, 1973), it can be often detected in ruminants on a high roughage diet and even in fibrous materials recovered from the rumen (Koike et al., 2003b). Therefore, it is considered that S. ruminantium might contribute to fiber digestion in an indirect manner. Here, we focused on the physiological and ecological significance of S. ruminantium for fiber digestion with special reference to its phylogenetic grouping. In the present study, we obtained 19 isolates of S. ruminantium that were classified into two clades (I and II), one of which selleckchem (II) was phylogenetically novel. In particular, the 16S rRNA gene sequence of clade II isolates shared only 93.6–94.9% sequence similarity with known S. ruminantium isolates. In addition, clade II comprised the isolates obtained in the present study, a cultured bacterium RC-11, and two uncultured bacteria. Thus, this is the first indication of the existence of a novel clade of S. ruminantium or the related new species. Indeed, clade II is distinct from all other S. ruminantium isolates in the phylogenetic tree, even though all of the isolates were characterized as being motile

curved rods that produce propionate and acetate, which are common phenotypes of S. ruminantium (Kingsley & Hoeniger, CYTH4 1973). Isolation of this novel clade in the present study may have been due to the fact that the samples were analyzed following filter paper degradation, and fiber-attaching species might have accumulated on the degraded filter paper fibers. Selenomonas ruminantium is classified into two subspecies of ruminantium and lactilytica (Stewart et al., 1997), and all known isolates of lactilytica having 16S rRNA information (JCM6582, JCM7528, and DSM2872) were placed in clade I. However, subspecies placement in such phylogeny is still inconclusive, because most of the S. ruminantium isolates have not been biochemically characterized for subspecies description. The possible involvement of S.